The Criminal Within
I wanted to share some of the more interesting essays from my University days! This one looks into the link between criminality and how it comes out in one’s life - in this case how we can see it seeping into the Arts, whether music, art or writing of the individual. It was part of a criminology course I had taken as an elective and had thoroughly enjoyed! All references are in-text as well as in full at the end.
Discuss the relevance of the interaction between basic biological and psychological processes, and their influence on criminal behaviour as seen through artistic expression.
We meet no ORDINARY PEOPLE in our lives
- C.S. Lewis
In this assignment I will be looking at the biological as well as psychological influences that at the end of the day are the reasons behind ‘why’ a person acts in a criminal manner. Perhaps more importantly they are the seeds of potential which are used and developed by choice. Firstly, I will be looking at why and how criminology developed as a science, then I will look at different theories which have been introduced over the years. Secondly, I would like to show how at least some of these theories can be applied, in various situations, by putting forward three different personalities who acted in a criminal manner – be it in their personal lives and/or expressed through their works of art. These will be artists from different spheres; that is to say art (Caravaggio), music (Tchaikovsky) and literature (Yeats), and I will also be taking their context into consideration. To wrap up I will be giving a summary of the main points and also a few personal comments.
Criminology developed due to the uniting of positivists (positivism being the science concerned with facts), social statisticians and psychiatrists (Blackburn, 1993). The biological influence was introduced by the physician and anthropologist Lombroso, whilst it had been traditional to associate psychology and psychiatry with the individual and to criminal tendencies. More often than not, criminology tends to assume that people on the lower end of the socio-economic scale are more prone to become criminals. The aspect of crime that will be explored in this piece of work relates to violence. Violence is traditionally any physical act that implies physical injury, and it turns criminal once the force is illicit, whilst threats and attempts to injure someone fall under the term ‘assault’ (Blackburn, 1993). According to Blackburn, aggression is when the act to harm is intentional and is not limited to the physical but includes the psychological.
The idea of linking art and crime has always intrigued me. The question of what is going on in a human mind at a particular moment; a mind which at the same time is capable of such creativity is quite fascinating. Then again, is not the artist but a human being too? Like any other human being, isn’t the artist susceptible to giving in to the surroundings and the circumstances at any given moment? This is what I would like to explore. Hans Eysenck (1916-1997) worked on a theory incorporating personality and intelligence (Cherry, 2014). Cherry explains that by looking at the role of intelligence and that of the environment on experience, Eysenck developed the Theory of Psychoticism and Creativity. Eysenck’s parents had divorced when he was two years old and was raised by his grandmother. His childhood and teenage experiences may have led him to look at human development with a particular acuteness. In fact, he is well known for the varied areas that he wrote and theorised about. He developed the PEN (Psychoticism, Extraversion, Neuroticism) model. Eysenck states that the traits of both psychoticism and creativity overlap (Porzio, 2003). As a behaviourist he sees learned behaviour and personality differences as developing from genetic inheritance. A person who is more prone to be psychotic is more reckless and expresses inappropriate emotions more readily (Boeree, 1998). According to him, extroversion implies the person is impulsive and outgoing; introversion being the opposite, presents a person who is tender-minded and serious. Someone who is neurotic is quite suggestible and lacks sociability (as cited from Avellino, 2014). To Eysenck’s mind people who are creative are usually deemed so as they have a broader range of thought, as opposed to those who are not creative. He therefore links the creative mind with that of the schizophrenic.
In a way this implies that creativity stems from the psychotic but is this really the case for all creative beings? Given the broad range of meaning we now understand by the term ‘creative’ this is quite a statement. Sternberg (1999) gives a counterargument I quite agree with. He states that creativity lies in the capacity to create; creativity being affected by individual and developmental differences, while intelligence is a heritable trait. Regarding the issue of schizophrenia, Sternberg (1999) is of the opinion that it is a biological issue and as such it is most probable that creativity is quite unrelated to psychosis.
Intelligence cannot be put aside as irrelevant to the issue of criminality. It plays a major role in what kind of crimes an individual chooses to participate in, and the thought process to actualize them - the environment still being a factor of influence. The nature-nurture theory (Avellino, 2014) expresses how we are genetically determined and how on the other hand the environment influences and affects one’s attitudes. The main influences on the development of one’s personality being family, social groups and school environment. Temperament and resilience being two of the most determining factors in the way one deals with a given situation. Temperament is a genetic trait (as proved by the study of twins); therefore a person’s predisposition to act cannot be helped. On the other hand, resilience, I believe, is an amalgamation of genes and the experiences one goes through. Genetics is somewhat the basis but it is really strengthened or weakened by life experiences. Resilience has a lot to do with the type of relationships, the bonds we form as young human beings with the people around us and the environment we engage in. Here the quality and not quantity of those bonds is of critical importance. This is what Bowlby’s Attachment Theory is all about. This is also related to the work of Baumrind’s (1991) on parental styles and their influence on child and personality development.
Baumrind (1991) distinguishes between four different parental styles, these being: authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent and neglectful. The authoritative parent is one who is assertive and supportive and the children usually become high achievers, sociable and cope well with stress. This is essentially the recommended style for parents to emulate. According to Baumrind the other three styles leave a negative impact on children’s development. The authoritarian style tends to develop children with low self esteem as relationships between adult and child are based on power. The indulgent style usually creates children who want to be the centre of attention, where parents give in to all their requests. The last style which is that of the neglectful parent implies that the child, unless resilient and strong willed enough, will probably do poorly in life (as cited from Avellino, 2014). Yet it has to be said that people coming from all walks of life and being exposed to different parenting styles may resort to crime. Interesting to note is that according to Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990), criminality is due to low self-esteem which itself, as we have seen, stems from ineffective parenting (as cited in Avellino, 2014).
The ability to have self control, delay gratification and have tolerance for a certain amount of frustration are things that a criminal usually lacks, as criminal acts most often imply the opposite (Wilson & Herrnstein, 1985; Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990 as cited in Blackburn, 1993). When the ego is in control of the instinctual impulses, they are channelled or actualised via fantasies (Pulkinnen, 1986 as cited in Blackburn, 1993). Delay implies cognitive skill, as one has to be aware and condition the extent to which they are aroused.
What makes a person a criminal is all about “a series of choices”, assuming the person is in control of their own decisions (Yochelson & Samenow, 1976 as cited in Blackburn, 1993). Aggression can be divided into an emotional and behavioural state. This implies that anger or annoyance-motivated aggression is characteristically distinguishable from incentive-motivated aggression (Buss, 1961; Zillmann, 1979 as cited in Blackburn, 1993). Most impulsive crime would therefore be considered emotionally triggered; whilst premeditated crime is colder and more calculating. Buss (1961) uses the latter kind of aggression and the term hostility interchangeably, as the latter relates to attitudes of mistrust. Zillmann (1979), on the other hand, views hostility as that which is the cause of non-physical harm.
All kinds of behaviour depend not only on the situation one finds oneself in but also on biological factors. Some, such as Wilson (1978), believe that emotions and self-appreciation are evolutionary based. Aggression, which is a physical/psychological expression of emotion, is conditioned by the family/community/culture one belongs to, but it is also influenced by the individual’s exposure to learning and the type of education one goes through in life. As an emotion it is usually put to use when one feels threatened, rather than just an outburst of accumulated emotions. Though an aggressive drive or instinct we could say is generally assumed to exist in each one of us (Kutash, 1978 as cited in Blackburn, 1993).
Deviancy, substance abuse and/or alcoholism (which are other forms of behaviour leading to violence) are assumed to be connected to a variety of factors related to life events. Goldstein (1989, as cited in Blackburn, 1993) puts forward three ways in which drugs may be linked to the use of violence - when violence is a result of taking the drug then it is termed ‘psychopharmacological violence’, when the motivation towards violence is the need for the drug then it is ‘economically compulsive violence’ and ‘systemic violence’ regards the violence that comes from the handling and dealing of drugs. Personality is also a key factor when it comes to being hostile; as personality might actually be the reason the person feels compelled to drink (for example) in the first place. This is most probably the case with our artist Caravaggio – it was more a case of liking drink, hence his personality, and then acting on impulse as a consequence of being drunk, that got him into so much trouble. According to Megargee (1966, as cited in Blackburn, 1993) people who are easily angered are ‘undercontrolled’ and have as such weak inhibition; those who are ‘overcontrolled’ have strong inhibitions and will only act out if reasonably aroused. This behaviour is commonly seen among physically aggressive and homicidal people.
In the following paragraphs I will be exploring three world-renowned artists who led a turbulent lifestyle, tinged with violence - namely Caravaggio, Tchaikovsky, and Yeats.
Michelangelo Merisi Caravaggio
Judith Beheading Holofernes; The Entombment of Christ; The Seven Works of Mercy
Michelangelo Caravaggio (1571-1610) lived from childhood in a violent and unstable environment. In fact, he was born in Italy a week before the Battle of Lepanto, one of the battles between the Christian and Ottoman forces. His father was killed by the bubonic plague when he was only six years old and he was orphaned by the age of eleven. Once orphaned, he formed part of a group of ‘painters and swordsmen’ who lived by the motto nec spe, nec metu (without hope, without fear).
He was known to be a violent and moody drunkard. It is chronicled that Caravaggio served a short prison sentence in 1603 following a complaint, assassinating Ranuccio Tomassino in the same year (some say due to the lust he harboured for his wife Lavinia), and attacked Roman guards in 1605. As a consequence of his actions he escaped to Malta, but even here his violence could not be contained as in 1608 he attacked Fra Giovanni Rodomonte Roero – the latter later attacked and disfigured Caravaggio in Naples. Upon examining Caravaggio’s body, he was found to have had high levels of lead – high enough to have made him mad (as happened with Francisco Goya and Vincent Van Gogh) (TheBiography.com, 2014). This was not surprising of course, as lead was used to create a particular white pigment, which he used to paint with.
Of particular interest though is that we can see and feel the inner and exterior violence Caravaggio lived in his works of art. Even his religious scenes are given a dark interpretation; as he brings prostitutes, beggars and thieves into the scene. In his ‘Resurrection’ Christ is bedraggled as he escapes his tomb – very much like he himself was always escaping his actions.
Deviance is explained through differential association; that is basing behaviour on association and interaction with others. Crime is seen as a result of social disorganisation; therefore crime occurs because of conflicting social norms (Blackburn, 1993). Blackburn (1993), states that the theory is preoccupied with the frequency of exposure to criminal behaviour rather than the actual criminal association. This theory was developed by Edwin Sutherland, who establishes nine points on the basis that values, attitudes and motives for criminal behaviour are learnt through others. It does not take into consideration how one’s personality affects the extent to which one is susceptible to the environment (Boundless.com). Taking the learning theories as the most relevant to Caravaggio’s case, there are two criminal learning perspectives (Blackburn, 1993). One sees crime as a failure of socialisation and the other as something learned. In Caravaggio’s case I think that he certainly learnt criminal behaviour from others from a young age, especially since he had no parental guidance and/or support. Though taking into consideration that he lived in the 17th century, might it have been a sort of survival skill to be violent? Rather than viewing it as an individual failure it may actually be more of a social failure. Maybe he did not have the best timing or acted violently for the best of reasons but who’s to say he wasn’t acting so as to safeguard his own life?
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky
”To regret the past, to hope in the future, and never to be satisfied with the present: that is what I spend my whole life doing.”
Pyotr Tchaikovsky (1840-1893) established himself from a young age in the Russian music scene. He was the second eldest child of six; his father was a metal work manager and a mine inspector (The Biography.com). His parents, though allowing him to commence piano lessons at the age of five, hoped he would become a civil servant. He lost his mother to cholera in 1854. The expectation of remaining within the civil service was not to be upheld as once he entered the Ministry of Justice in 1859 his fascination with music took flight. It is believed that he struggled with homosexuality throughout his adult life, yet in 1877 he married a music student who was in awe of him. The marriage lasted a few weeks. Tchaikovsky’s attempted suicide was the reason he fled abroad, to return to St. Petersburg a few years later. He died there, it is declared, of cholera yet it is most likely he committed suicide after a humiliating sex scandal he had just been involved in.
Tchaikovsky’s 6th Symphony, entitled Pathetique is said to be his darkest piece, albeit sprinkled with happier moments and resolutions (TheDarkerSideofClassicalMusic, 2014). Many composers have had troubled periods which inevitably (one can postulate) turn up in their works. From Allan Patterson who composes turbulent and angry pieces, full of unresolved conflict (Symphonies 6-9); Mahler who struggles with the notion of death and confronts it in many of his greater compositions (Symphony 2); Verdi’s La Traviata of course as it revolves around death. And I cannot help but mention Gidon Kremmer, who may be said to feel a certain pull towards the darker side of music as his repertoire includes Antonio Vivaldi, J.S. Bach, Tchaikovsky and is associated with composers such as Arvo Pärt and Phillip Glass to name a few (GidonKremer.net, 2014).
William Butler Yeats
“What man does not understand, he fears; and what he fears, he tends to destroy.”
William Yeats (1865-1939) was a poet and playwright (best known for ‘The Wild Swans at Coole’) who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1923 (TheBiography.com, 2014). Most people feel Yeats to be a violent poet; he comprehended the ‘violent emotion’ as Ezra Pound put it (Wood, 2010). Interestingly the actual word ‘violence’ rarely creeps up in his work. Could this be due to the fact that violence is able to take many forms? As such there is no need to point it out – it exists in plain sight for those who are willing to see it. One of the few times he actually calls it out, is in ‘Under Ben Bulben’ – Even the wisest man grows tense With some sort of violence... – a poem which was published posthumously and reads almost like a will (enotes.com, 2014). He might have felt the need to mention it as the poem as a whole is so profound; the heart of the argument being on the importance of the bond between family and home (enotes.com, 2014). The violence emerges in the details, talismanic objects and symbols he brings to life, such as the unicorn (which Yeats identifies with) which is a symbol of destruction and reflects impulsivity (Webster, 1973). He identifies with this creature according to Webster in order to express the aggression he feels, not allowing himself to be overwhelmed. His garden island which symbolises death and also escape (as it’s an island) is a reflection of the psychic conflict within (Webster, 1973). Yeats makes even death more bearable through his verse as it becomes in many ways immortal. Another way for him to deal with anxiety is to almost wish for the feared event to occur.
The suspense in Yeats’ works is not felt and is not meant to be felt in the literal experience of violence but rather the observance of it, as he mentions Calvary’s turbulence in The Magi – the crucifixion is inevitable and the reader knows what is to come, it is this awaiting which is of utter importance (Wood, 2010). Thus can one postulate that for the two previous artists art was simply not enough of a relief, of a refuge in which to express their emotions completely? Violence had to leak into their interactions with others (as can be clearly seen in Caravaggio’s attitude towards his environment and possibly – though less prominent – in the way Tchaikovsky dealt with his emotions when it came to people) and also with themselves (Caravaggio was a drunkard and Tchaikovsky attempted suicide). Yeats perhaps acts as their foil. He was most definitely affected psychologically by his background; that is to say his mother in particular. His low self-esteem stemmed from his lack of control in the relationship with his mother, therefore affecting other relationships throughout his life, by instilling within him certain misconceptions and misrepresentations.
It is a combination of factors that drives one to resort to crime. It is all a matter of how different people cope with experiences they encounter in different social milieu. The manner in which people cope with the situations they face is all down to perception, and therefore how they choose to react to the present moment.
The Wild Swans at Coole
The trees are in their autumn beauty,
The woodland paths are dry,
Under the October twilight the water
Mirrors a still sky;
Upon the brimming water among the stones
Are nine and fifty swans
. . .
…when I awake some day
To find they have flown?
References
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